Smoking Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Smoking - Assignment Example risks of strokes by 2 to 4 time; coronary heart complication by 2 to 4 times; risks of cancer in women by 13 times, risk of cancer in men by 23 times and death from chronic, lung obstructive diseases by 12 to 13 times. To this end, it is pertinent for both smokers and non smokers to be enlightened on the risks factor of smoking, the benefits of not smoking as well as the intervention mechanisms for quitting smoking. It is a lifestyle habit whereby individuals engage in the inhaling of tobacco cigarettes. Evidently, smoking is a pertinent social and health problem due to a host of reasons. Foremost, tobacco smoking is a leading cause of preventable disease and death. Second, the longer an individual smokes during his or her lifetime; there is an increased level of damage to the health. Third, all tobacco smoke does not contain any risk-free level. Consequently, there is an immediate damage from tobacco smoking. Fourth, all cigarettes are pose critical health risks. To this end, there are no safe cigarettes. Evidently, smoking is a problem that affects the health of both smokers and non-smokers. This is due to the secondhand and thirdhand smoke which can be detrimental to the health of both smokers and non-smokers in society. Evidently, secondhand smokes emanates from two forms. These are sidestream smoke and mainstream smoke. In this regard, sidestream smokes emanates from the scorching end of a cigarette. On the other hand, mainstream smoke refers to the exhaled smoke by the smoker. To this end, both mainstream and sidestream smokes reside in the air as small particles for longer periods of time stretching into hours and days. Consequently, exposure to such particles for even such brief periods is enough to trigger health complications such as chest pains and heart pains. In this regard, there is concoction of chemicals present in tobacco smoke which are harmful to the non smokers and smokers. Evidently, there are at 69 chemical components of tobacco smoke

Soap operas Essay Example for Free

Soap operas Essay Although this is true, it is still an issue that teenagers, especially, must be aware of. For this reason alone, I think that there should be more discussion about how to avoid date rape, and how to protect oneself from even getting into a situation where one could be raped. In the soap operas All My Children, and Sunset Beach, there are sexual issues that revolve around teenage relationships. There were discussions about whether or not to wait before having sexual intercourse. In All My Children, the storyline was about a teen-aged birth mother suing the adoptive parents for custody of her child. This storyline allowed for several discussions about the consequences of unplanned and unprotected sexual activity, and about the importance of waiting until one is ready before engaging in sexual intercourse. Although soaps sometime discuss the consequences of sexual acts, there are too many episodes that let sex just happen without any real discussion of its consequences. For instance on the soap Sunset Beach, there is a character, Annie, who is about twenty five years old, who sleeps with everyone on the show who has something that she wants. She is very rich and extremely manipulative. Through her conversations with friends, the audience learns that, deep down, all she wants is to find true love. Obviously she will not achieve what she really wants by being so sexually promiscuous and amoral, but some audiences may think that you can get what you want by sleeping around. If there are all of these negative images and ideas portrayed throughout soap operas, then why is it so popular to women? In a recent study done by Woods, he asked 100 high school girls about 23 possible reasons for watching soap operas. The top ten reasons were, (a) I just enjoy watching them, (b) it gives me something to do, (c) soaps are fun, (d) they fill up time, (e) its a pleasant way to rest, (f) they relax me, (g) soaps are a habit, (h) I can forget about school, (i) I can get away from my family, (j) and soaps cheer me up. It is apparent that these responses are what people might say for any television show. What attracts people to soap operas and the reasons behind them being fun and relaxing is because they deal with issues that happen in real life. Not everyone is going to get raped, or accidentally pregnant, but everyone should know that it can happen to them and they should be careful. It is interesting to think that maybe women are so attracted to soaps because it makes their lives seem more normal. Greenberg and Woods used a survey by the author Compesi to compare adult and adolescent results to similar questions on the reasons for watching soap operas. He mailed 52 surveys consisting of gratification items for the viewers of, All My Children. the findings for soaps and adolescent gratifications are a close match to those for soaps and adult gratifications. Although people do change, I feel that the foundation of what draws people in and interests continues in one way or another throughout a persons life. It is not an unrealistic assumption that sexuality is exciting to watch and learn about, especially for curious young individuals. Recently the issue of homosexuality has been incorporated within soap operas. In All My Children, the teenaged character Bianca came out as a lesbian. Along with this came her struggles of being accepted and the ability to find a happy relationship. There were a few episodes dealing with Biancas romantic happiness and with the fact that she had a crush on a straight woman. There was one episode where Bianca asked Frankie, a homosexual female that she was friends with, if she was afraid that Bianca would make a move on her. Frankie insisted that she didnt feel uncomfortable with her and also assured Bianca that she didnt want her to give her more space and that she valued their budding friendship. When another character, Vanessa, arrived, she ordered Frankie to leave Pine Valley because she lied to her about her sexuality. She asked Frankie to move out, saying that Frankie should have been honest from the beginning. Alone, Bianca offered to help Frankie find another place, but Frankie rejected her. Bianca told Frankie that, as usual, someone she liked was pulling away from her. In this example it is apparent that it is rough on a persons self-esteem to not be able to find love or a true friend because of ones sexuality or sexual preference. I would imagine that these episodes are not unrealistic in the life of a teenage lesbian, but I noticed that they did not portray a fulfilled life for one. The steamy love scenes are the norm for heterosexual couples, yet when it comes to homosexuals, they are rarely even allowed to touch. Every few scenes within an episode show two heterosexuals kissing, or being sexual with each other. When it comes to homosexuals, there is usually just discussion about the hardships that the person is enduring, and there are rarely any visual depictions of sexuality. Starting a few years ago was the first time that a lesbian kiss was even shown on daytime television. This issue of homosexuality is more open and talked about then it used to be, but they still do not seem to be portrayed the same as heterosexuals. Although gays are not represented accurately, watching them interact can desensitize some people that are uncomfortable dealing with those people who choose that lifestyle. Soaps deal with the issue of pregnancy as well. Having a baby could be a happy and exciting thing for some people, but it seems like most of the pregnancies on soaps deal with the negatives of pregnancy, like teenage pregnancies, pregnancies due to rape and pregnancies with twisted stories to them. An example of this is from the soap Sunset Beach, where the character Vanessa, an engaged woman, was impregnated in vitro. Due to an accident she was unconscious and the woman who was jealous of her boyfriend gave her the injection. It was not the sperm of her fianci , Michael, but a different male. Michael, who is now sterile, thinks that she is pregnant from him, but knows that he could not be the father. He thinks that she must have slept with another guy, and the saga continues. The is an exaggerated scenario, of course, but this type of situation allows for the audiences thoughts and discussion of safe sex and trust in ones partner. These are issues that every individual must deal with at one point or another, which may be another reason for the popularity of soap operas. If I were to speculate on the potential effects of viewing such content, I would say that viewers are getting ample information about sexual activity that promotes the idea that sexual activity is appropriate and beneficial for heterosexual couples in established relationships. The issues of rape, teenage sex and pregnancy, single parenting, drug addiction, abortion, infidelity, and death are all issues in which characters have dealt with. This allows the audience to discuss these issues without talking about themselves, which can be uncomfortable. An individuals morals and values about sex should stem from the home. It is the parents job to try and teach their children what sex and being a sexual person is all about. If these values are implemented, the young viewer should be able to decipher between what is right, what is wrong, and what is exaggerated. There are a variety of reasons for women to be attracted to soap operas, and sexuality is definitely one of them. Being a woman is a very powerful thing, and many people do not understand that. Some women and teenagers may feel that power when watching a sexual encounter, knowing that they have the power to do the same thing (less dramatically of course). Sex and being sexual are intriguing concepts that are very mysterious to some. By watching soap operas, we see the dramatic portrayal of how relationships should and should not be. There is the right and wrong way to go about becoming sexually active. Soap operas are an excellent way to see and learn about all of the right and wrong ways of dealing with issues, especially ones that deal with sexual relationships. People are always looking for a way to improve their relationships or spice them up, and soap operas are an excellent way to either learn something new, or fanaticize about the perfect relationship. The fact that soap operas are so exaggerated, I feel, is the major draw to them because they make reality and everyday life seem more normal. References: Greenberg, S. B, Woods, M. G. (1999). The soaps: their sex, gratifications, and outcomes.The Journal Of Sex Research, 36(3), 250. Committee on Communications, American Academy of Pediatrics. (1995). Sexuality, contraception, and the media. Pediatrics, 95(2), 298.

swatch :: essays research papers

Competitive Environment One main competitor was Timex They designed a simple low cost cheap watch that was made up of new alloy bearings. By having this new material it made automated production easier. The Timex watches were priced at a low rate and were marketed to be disposable. The were priced to low and they were made so that they couldn’t be opened they made for not aftermarket repair or sales of parts. At the end of the 50’s one out of three watches bought in the US were a Timex.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1970 with the introduction of the Quartz technology changed the market place once again. The quartz watches had some advantages over the Swiss, they were based on electronics, it made it easier to add the date or the day to the watch. It also became significantly cheaper to manufacture, because the cost of the chips were being driven down by chip manufactures.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Out of this wave and leading the way were manufacturers like Hattori-Seiko and Citizen. The two companies made huge investments in fully automated facilities around the world. They were soon joined by Casio, which was specializing in a low cost multifunctional, plastic watch that was incorporating features such as timers and calculators.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By 1979 Hattori-Seiko had become the world’s largest watch company in terms of revenues; they were producing 22 million watches annually. By the end of 1986 Citizen had become the overall global leader in both movement and finished watch production volumes. With the rise in quartz technology hastened the decline of the Swiss watch industry. The Japanese watch makes saturated the global market with the quartz watch at rock bottom prices. In the early 1980’s the Swiss market place in the watches below $100. their market share was 0%. Watches between $100 and $350 they had a market share of about 3%. But in the market place of $350 and above they carried a share of 97% of the market.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some of the strengths were that they were making watches that were at a low cost high volume. The factories were placed all over the world and were able to ship to all the different market places with great eases. Also by using the quartz technology they were again able to cut cost to offer a cheaper watch to the consumer. The customers like the fact that they could buy a cheap great looking watch that would take a licking and keep on ticking.

Dental X-ray Tech

Everything was set; I placed the film In the mannequins' mouth, positioned the mannequins head, positioned the x-ray beam, and then pushed the button. All of a sudden, all the electricity went out! Oh my Lord, what did I do! I broke the machine, I thought to myself. Just then another student shouted â€Å"Look, the lights in the city are all going out†. We were having a major blackout in New York City. What a lucky break for me, I thought. So with a sigh of relief, we all quickly gathered our belongings to leave the bulging for security purposes, and into the night we went.My classmate and I owed to stay together, until we both reached home Dental X-Ray Techniques safely, and being two female teenagers at 17 years old, we were both as frightened as little rabbits. That night was one of the longest and scariest nights of our lives; we only had $3. 00 dollars between the two of us and at that time a 35 cent token each. With all the chaos of looting; price hiking of the cabs; and flashers coming out of Bryant Park, we were truly thankful and grateful for making it home safely.School was delayed for about a week, but I did manage to complete and pass my test and resume my studies. Graduation Day came in October of 1977. We were all dressed In starched white uniforms, white stockings, white shoes, and white nursing caps looking very professional. My family and I were very proud when I receive my certificate of Proficiency (exhale: 1). About one week after graduation, I went on a job interview and landed my first dental Job at 1 Hanson Place, Brooklyn New York in the dental field of Orthodontics. Dry.Robert Fisher was a very well known Orthodontist in New York, and he loved teaching all the ladies in the office all they should know about the field. Although we all rotated between his two offices, one In Brooklyn, and another In Manhattan and had other duties as assigned, In his particular offices, one of my mall responsibly was to take and develop all types of x-rays on each patient. This was due to the excellent grades I received in school that Dry. Fisher viewed. The x-rays consisting of: 1. A full mouth of Periodical x-rays 2. A Pandora x-ray 4. A Wrist-plate x-ray 5.An Causal x-ray 6. Four Bite-wing x-rays A full-mouth series of Periodical's consist of: Eighteen small film x-rays, strategically place in the mouth one at a time, to capture al thirty-two teeth in a persons' mouth. This x-ray is primarily used to diagnose abnormalities involving the roots and bone. If there are missing teeth you still have to capture the anatomy of the spacing. All cavities on the crowns of the teeth or roots of the teeth will show up for the doctor to view. This is what is known as an intra-oral dental x-ray, because the film is placed inside the mouth.A Pandora x-ray: A Pandora x-ray is an x-ray that captures a persons' complete upper and lower teeth; jaw-line; eye-socket's; and face-plate of the person. The film is place in a large assets off large x -ray machine. The patient is then positioned to bite on a grooved bite stick that is attached to the machine. Temple stabilizers are closed at the temples of Dental X-Ray Techniques the head and the chin is lifted slightly upward and resting on a chin-rest. This cassette is made to revolve around the patient's head, while the patient is in a non- moving standing position.This is what is known as an extra-oral dental x-ray, because the film is positioned outside of the mouth. Spectrograph x-ray: A Spectrograph is an x-ray that captures a patients' entire skull. This is also an extra- oral x-ray, and it shows the profile of the patient and how far the teeth and Jaw-line is protruding. It helps the doctor assess which way to align the patients' teeth and Jaw. Hand-wrist-plate x-ray: This is an x-ray that is taken on children only to allow the doctor to see the growth pattern in a child.It helps the doctor to see if the children's teeth are growing normally or not, and how fast or slow a child is growing. In relations to their teeth, it allows the doctor to know ahead of time what treatment of movement to the teeth loud be needed to help the child. This x-ray also determines the real age of the child. An Clausal x-ray: An Clausal x-ray is a large x-ray that shows how wide or how narrow the palate of a person's mouth is, and the full arch of the upper (maxillary) and lower (mandible) teeth.Bite-wing x-rays: Bite-wing x-rays are four small x-rays, taken in the posterior (back teeth) part of the mouth, that show the crown of the teeth; the gum-line; and cavities on the crowns and in between the teeth. These x-rays also help to show the early stages of periodontal disease. When I first entered the Veteran's Administration in 1988, infection control for dental radiology was one of the most important standard we had to know. Even though we did have an assigned X-ray Technician, we as Dental Assistants also had to know all about dental x-ray techniques, since there are s o many aspects to know about taking dental x-ray.But the important immediate basic (exhibit: 2) We were taught in the Veterans Administration that before bringing a patient into the x-ray room you have to be sure that the room is clean and disinfected on all surfaces that are touched by anyone. The Assistants should wash their hands before putting on gloves because gloves must be worn at all times. Then, surfaces such as; the control panels; biting apparatus; exposure switch; counters; the tube of the machine; and any handles that are touched should be covered with a special plastic barrier tape that is easily peeled off once you are finished.But this tape should be placed in view of the patient, so they can see and know that the coverings are fresh and clean. After, the Assistant should wash their hands again, because some gloves contain powder inside them. Before any dental x-rays are taken ask the patient to please remove all earrings; tongue piercing; face piercing; hair pins; a nd sometimes even necklaces, so that these things do not interfere with the reading of the x-rays. The Assistant can start by letting the patient know that it's okay if they gag and that they will take things very slow to make them comfortable.So if the Assistant does encounter a gagger there are different methods that can be used to tried and alleviate the gagging such as: putting a little oral topical anesthesia on the tongue and palate; sometimes telling he patient to lift one leg slightly off the floor and holding it there, (with this method it gets the patient to concentrate on the lifting instead of what's being done in the mouth), and even asking the patient to take a deep breath and holding it sometimes help.Using Petitioned film is also tried at times since this film is very small and generally used on children. Since periodical x-rays are the ones taken most often, it is better to take this particular x-ray by using a film holder for paralleling called the â€Å"Rain ICPà ¢â‚¬ , this holder takes the guesswork out of site angling. Then by centering the x-ray beam over the film, you will prevent cutting off any vital anatomy, which is called, â€Å"cone cutting†. Always develop a sequence when exposing your film so that no area is missed or overlooked.Starting with the anterior (front) teeth first is the easiest area for the patient to tolerate, then work your way to the back. This helps the patient to gag less, and allows the Assistant to achieve getting as many of the eighteen x-rays as possible. There will be times when a patient Just does not want to have an x-ray because they fear the radiation (exhibit: 3). Try to have patience and explain to the patient that the doses of radiation are very small compared to the benefits of diagnosing any problem.But when you can take the x-rays the Assistant should factor in all the safety measures for themselves, and the patient. By using a Thyroid Collar on the patient, thyroid exposure is reduced by fifty percent while a lead apron reduces Next, only the Assistant and the patient are allowed in the x-ray room during exposure. Then, the Assistant must stand in a safe place, preferably at least six feet away behind a barrier and not in direct contact to the beam. If you cannot stand six feet away, then stand outside of the room.No Assistant should ever hold the films in the patient's mouth, like they use to do in the days of old, and never hold the beam or tube head to stabilize it during exposure. There are many organ in a persons' body that are radiotherapist and these organs are: the reproductive organs; the thyroid glands; a fetus; female breast; your skin; the lens of your eyes; and blood forming organs. Damage to these organs can result in a person getting cancer; inherited mutations; birth defects; cataracts; and leukemia. A way in which we were taught to reduce radiation exposure to patients is by using the â€Å"A.L. A. R. A. † concept, which stands for â€Å"As Low As Reasonably Achievable†. This means that every reasonable step to reduce radiation exposure too person will be used. The Assistant should always use protective wear when handling radiography and touching patients such as: gloves; surgical masks; protective eye wear; and a protective gown in case the Assistant do encounter a gagger. If the patient is still a little frightened, let them know that the Doctor cannot give a lull exam without the x-rays, and if that doesn't work, let the Doctor speak to the patient.Never x-ray any woman if you see or suspect her being pregnant. When cleaning up the x-ray room after use, the Assistant must remember to remove all the plastic barrier tape; dispose of the gloves and dispose any other supplies used, in the proper waste containers. The room must be cleaned and disinfected, even on surfaces that were not covered; turn off the x-ray machine and place the tube in a resting position, which is usually against the wall. Hang the lead apro n up, and aka sure it is not folded, because folding the apron damages the lead inside.Never re-drape the room with the plastic for the next patient, because the next Assistant won't know whether it is clean or not, and neither will the patient. Keep an accurate check on all your x-ray developing solutions and always follow the manufacturer's instructions, whether you have a manual developer or an automatic developer. As a Dental Assistant, I have taken x-rays on patients for approximately thirty years. I have taught many of my co-workers in the Veterans Administration how to SE the newest digital x-ray machines in the clinic, and I am knowledgeable in processing x-rays as well as mounting them (exhibit: 4).My knowledge of policies and procedures come from my ability to research and review available records and locate required documents through our â€Å"Decentralized Hospital Computer Programming† system. In dental the basic standards of policies and procedures are: wearing lead aprons; technicians wearing their radiation badges; exercising quality control; monitoring exposure levels (ALARM); knowing and extending patient privacy information; Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act; and excellent customer service.

Mahabalipuram

Mahabalipuram is an enigmatic town popular for its rock-cut temples and monuments. It is also known as Mammalapuram and was one of the most flourishing port towns during the historic rule of the Pallava Dynasty. Till date one can clearly feel its historic charm and grandeur through the rich legacy that lies in its stone sculptures and temples. There are many tourist attractions in Mahabalipuram most of which are historic and dedicated mostly to the Hindu gods and goddesses. Mahabalipuram made significant development under the rule of the Pallavas in the 7th century. The city is said to have derived its name after the Pallava king Mamalla and in the ancient times it was famous as Mamallapuram. It was after the downfall of the Guptas that Pallavas came to prominence and exercised full control over this town. They were very powerful and very astute in their perspective. The Golden Age of the rule of the Pallavas was from 650 AD to 750 AD. Many great poets, dramatists, artists, artisans, scholars and saints emerged during this period. Mahabalipurm is also referred to as the â€Å"open air museum† due to the presence of so many architectural marvels. During the rules of Narsimha Varman I (AD 630-668) and Narsimha Varman II (AD 700-728), most of the temples and rock carvings of this place were built. Although the first kings of Pallava dynasty followed Jainism, the conversion of Mahendra Varman (AD 600-630) to Shaivism resulted in majority of the monuments to be related with Shiva or Vishnu. Mahabalipuram experiences a hot and sweltering climate all year round with a maximum temperature of 35 °C and minimum temperature of 19 °C. A trip to Mahabalipuram can best be enjoyed from October to March; however the monsoons should be avoided. Mahabalipuram is not just about the temples and architecture but it is also about the natural beauty of the surroundings. The long stretch of the beaches dotted with palm-groves is ideal to spend a few moments away from the usual cacophony of the city. A visit to this place is also an educative experience, showing visitors the great architectural achievements of the ancient artisans of India.

Review data relevant to the distinction between early-selection and late selection in models of attention Essay Example

Review data relevant to the distinction between early Review data relevant to the distinction between early-selection and late selection in models of attention Paper Review data relevant to the distinction between early-selection and late selection in models of attention Paper Attention is the ability to take a hold of the mind and select one from many simultaneous objects or thoughts, discarding some things in order to deal with others more effectively (James,1890, as cited in Norman, 1976) . In every day life there are so many things that can be attended to and so certain aspects have to be selected over others. Some tasks that are carried out require very little attention and others require less the more time that they are practiced. All sensory information that is received requires some cognitive processing however with attention, cognitive processing needs to be continuous in order to keep focus and concentration. Attention is something that could be said to be limited, as cognitive processing cannot occur for all stimuli at the same time. It also is selective as the mental energy required for attention can be expanded as the person sees fit. Attention is an issue that has been debated upon for many years. Early-selection models have looked at selection as a limited process that requires selective attention in order to proceed. The selective attention occurs after a basic analysis of the physical features that are used to tell the difference between selected and non-selected stimuli. As a result of this, the unattended stimulus is not completely perceived. Late selection models however discard this idea and assume that perception is unlimited and that attention can be performed in parallel without a need for selection. Lavie and Tsal, 1994) Both the late selection models and early selection models differ in their concepts of how people attend to things and it was only until a compromise model was put forward by Lavie and colleagues that both models were combined to form the perceptual load framework. The idea of how we attend to more than one thing at a time has always been an issue. Colin Cherry (1953, as cited in Eysenck and Keane, 2001) looked at this idea when at a party he was fas cinated with how people were able to follow just one conversation when there are many other conversations taking place around. He called this idea the cocktail party effect, and put it down to physical differences, like gender, speaker location and voice intensity. Cherry carried out a number experiments on this idea and did this by presenting subjects with two different messages at the same time, one in each ear. Cherry found that when the messages were of the same voice then the listener was unable to distinguish between either of the two different messages. Cherry then carried out studies in which he asked the listeners to shadow one of the two messages heard. He found that the listeners could extract very little information from the non-shadowed message, and barely noticed when the non-shadowed message changed language or was even read backwards. Moray (1959, as cited in Kahneman, 1973) tried to look at how much information a subject could remember in the rejected auditory channel and so repeated an english word 35 times in one of the ears. He found that even though the subjects had heard the word many times, many of them still could not retain what it was. Cherry concluded from his work that unattended information receives hardly any processing, which follows the early selection model ideas that attention is not processed in parallel. Broadbent (1958, as cited in Eysenck and Keane, 2001) developed Cherrys ideas further by conducting an experiment on participants in which he presented them with two sets of numbers in each ear. For example the number 354 was presented in one ear at the same time as the number 692 was presented in the other ear. Broadbent found that participants recalled the numbers ear by ear rather than as a whole number, for example 354692 instead of 365942. Broadbent explained his findings by saying that both the inputs are presented in parallel fashion until they reach a buffer where one input is allowed to pass through and the other remains for later processing. This he explained is to prevent an overload. From his discovery Broadbent went on to construct a model from which he felt best described how attention is processed. This model was called the filter model. The filter model put forward the idea that the ability to analyse and identify information is limited. He argued that when information reaches the brain it filters out desired messages and rejects everything else, therefore blocking undesired inputs and preventing an overload on the perceptual system. (Dittrich, 2004) When information is presented it is analysed based upon its physical characteristics. The information is then simultaneously stored in separate channels in the sensory register and the filter switches between channels passing the information stored there, one channel at a time, to the detection device. If the message coming in doesnt have these characteristics then it is filtered out. Broadbents ideas were the beginning of many years of further research. This begun with a referral back to Cherrys questioning of how people can switch their attention from one input to another when they are unaware of the content within the unselected input. Gray and Wedderburn (1960 as cited in Kahneman, 1973) looked at this and ignored Broadbents idea that attention was the basis of an analysis of physical characteristics. They believed that psychological aspects played an important part and so carried out experiments to try and prove their theory. The experiment involved presenting subjects with words broken down into syllables. Each syllable was presented alternately to each ear. At the same time another word was broken down the same way and was presented to the complimentary ear. Gray and Wedderburn found that words could be constructed and were not repeated as just a mixture of different syllables. This suggested that meaning of information can be constructed from both ears and it is not just physical characteristics like Broadbent had previously said. Continuing from the work of Cherry and Broadbent, Treisman (1960) discovered that in experiments where a participant had to shadow a word, they sometimes repeated a word that had been presented to the unattended ear. This was known as a breakthrough(Dittrich, 2004). Treisman carried out a series of experiments and found that on the cases where this did occur the majority of the time the word was related to the context of the words being presented to the attended ear. Findings from this led to Treisman proposing a new filter theory in 1968. The filter rejected the idea of Broadbents all or none filter idea and suggested that attention is processed in a more flexible manner. Treisman noticed that a difference in voice and language played an important part in experiments involving participants to select a response to one of two messages ( Norman, 1976). It seems that differences occur depending on what language the second message is spoken in. For example if the language is of similar phonetic structure to that of English then it is less distracting than if the language was something like Czech. Also if the subject has previous knowledge of a language then this will be more distracting than hearing a language that they have never heard before. Overall Treisman concluded that it is unlikely that both messages are fully analysed and so selection of one message takes place over the other This selection takes place starting with an analysis of the messages physical features, then goes on to look at words and meaning. Triesman said that selection of messages that have the same voice, intensity and localization takes place during the analysis rather than after it. It is at this stage that the information-handling capacity becomes limited and so to prevent overloading the irrelevant message is either discarded or both messages are kept and alternation takes place between each one. The decision to which message is kept or whether both are alternated is based on physical characteristics and grammatical features. This is why people are sometimes able to anticipate what words are about to occur when speaking to someone about a particular subject. It is also why that information from competing messages is sometimes picked out when the information being heard is similar to that in which is being primarily attended. Deutsch and Deutsch (1963, as cited in Eysenck and Keane, 2001, Norman, 1976) come up with a theory, which is known more as a late selection model. According to Deutsch and Deutsch all information is processed in full when it enters the consciousness and that it will reach the same perceptual and discriminatory mechanisms whether attention is paid to it or not. They believed that sensory stimulus does not affect what we attend to but each central structure has different levels of importance. For example, our own name makes us attend more or distracts us more easily from a primary source than any random word. Deutsch and Deutsch disregarded Triesmans and Broadbents early filter theories and put forward the idea that even if a signal is on a channel in which another signal is already being attended it still can be detected. They also suggested that all inputs are recognized in parallel, and that the role of attention is to select which items get placed in short term memory. There is a lack of evidence supporting Deutsch and Deutschs theory and competing theorists have provided evidence against the idea that all information is processed in full. For example Treisman and Geffen (1967) asked participants to shadow one of two auditory messages and tap when they heard a target word in either of the messages. Results found that detection of the target word was much higher in the shadowed message than the non-shadowed message disregarding Deutsch and Deutschs claim that there should be no difference in the detection rate. Lavie et al (1994) took the ideas of both the early and late selection models and came up with a compromise of the two; this model was called the perceptual load framework. Lavie et al proposed that although physical differences play an important part in selective attention, irrelevant information is only discarded when the perceptual load of relevant information is too high to make use of the available resources. Therefore Lavie et al argues that tasks have different levels of attentional capacity and that upper limits are imposed at different levels dependent on a persons temporal state of alertness, availability of resources and the subject-task structural constraints. Navon and Gopher (1979 as cited in Lavie and Tsal, 1994) came up with a rule that states the amount of resources that can be applied to a task. They said that resources will be supplied to meet the internal demand and that these resources will either equal the demand or reach the limit of the available resources. Lavie et als approach mixes both the early and late selection processes by looking at the distinction between high and low perceptual loads. A perceptual load is the number of units in a display and the type of processing that is needed for each unit. It seems that the results that support early selection models have been gained when the conditions have been of high perceptual load whereas results supporting late selection have been gained under conditions of low perceptual load. As well as all of this Lavie et al still takes into consideration the differences between the physical characteristics of attended and unattended information. An experiment carried out by Stroop (1935 as cited in Lavie and Tsal, 1993) shows that there is a poor physical distinction between relevant and irrelevant stimuli when they both occupy the same location. This was shown in an experiment in which subjects had to identify the colour of a word. Results found that subjects processed the meaning of the word and that reaction time increased in relation to the baseline of response time to recognising a colour patch or the colour of a non-colour word when the word was a colour name and printed in a different colour. The stroop effect therefore was said to show that one stimuli affects another more one way, than if the two stimuli were to be reversed. For example naming a colour doesnt usually affect word reading, but word reading can affect colour naming. This indicates that the stoop affect is an example of the difference in parallel processing between relevant and irrelevant stimuli, which shows why there is a difference in response times between some stimuli compared to others. In all this approach looks at perceptual load being of a low level and generally supports late selection models as it takes upon the idea that attention is a process that can be carried out in parallel. Looking at evidence supporting early selection models however takes into consideration high perceptual loads. Pashler (1984, as cited in Lavie and Tsal, 1994) devised a variation of the bar-probe technique (Averbach Coriell, 1961). This involved using eight different items shown on a display with three stimulus onset asynchronies being shown between each stimulus and the probe. Subjects had to match each of the four shapes with the location, which resulted in the subjects creating eight different combinations. Pashler found that physical differences increased the time it took the participant to identify each shape to the location, even when the probe came 300 msec before the display. This therefore questions the late selection models as it shows that selection happens at the perceptual stage. In conclusion it seems that there is evidence supporting both models of early and late selection and that attention is something that varies dependent on a combination of both ideas. Although Broadbent (1958) and his filter theory initially put forward the idea that attention is a selective process, it does seem from later research that in some cases people are able to attend to more than one thing at a time. Treisman (1960) developed Broadbents idea and extended his filter theory by suggesting that physical differences play an important role in determining which message to keep or discarded. Treisman believed that selection takes place before analysis rather than after it and that both messages can be kept but alternation has to take place to prevent an overload. A late selection model proposed by Deutsch and Deutsch (1963) disagreed with that of early selection models in that they believed that all information is processed in full when it enters the consciousness. Deutsch and Deutsch said that even when multiple messages are on the same channel they can still be processed in parallel with the most important being kept and the other being stored in the short-term memory. Comparisons of the early and late selection models finally resulted in both being examined in an equal manner, eventually leading to the perceptual framework model being proposed by Lavie and colleagues (1994). This model supported both selection models by linking it to whether a perceptual load was high or whether it was low. Overall it seems that attention is wholly down to an analysis of physical properties, which is then given further analysis to determine what things are paid attention to and what things are not.

Free Essays on Democracy in Athens

DEMOCRACY IN ATHENS The rise of the Athenian city-state took place c. 1000 BC. Athens is located on the mainland in an area known as Attica, across the straits of Messina from Sparta and Corinth. Dorian invaders overran the Ionian natives c. 1000 BC. Unlike the Spartans, the Dorians assimilated the Ionian culture and became peaceful. Athenians turned toward the sea for a living, establishing a strong commercial trade. Athens founded many colonies in the Aegean Sea. Many Athenians became wealthy thus creating a wide social gap between its people. Social classes developed in Athens creating friction among its people. All males whose mother and father were citizens could vote and take part in the government (Citizens). The rising merchant and artisan class (Metics) could not own land or take part in the government. About 1/2 of population were slaves - considered personal property but did have some safeguards against abuse. The early Athenian government was an aristocracy which controlled all facets of government. The Assembly (Ecclesia); comprised of all male citizens but had very little power initially. King; elected by the aristocrats and owed power to them. Archons 9 aristocrats chosen from the Assembly made all laws and executed them controlled all political facets of Athenian life Judges; aristocrats chosen from Assembly and were given the task of verbal interpretation of the law. A series of democratic reformers moved Athens from and aristocracy to a democracy over a period of 150 years. Draco (621 BC) elected as Archon in 621 BC and went on to write down existing verbal laws laws were harsh and severe but represented a significant step in democracy harsh laws are often called "Draconian". Solon (594 BC) appointed to deal with Athenian problems in 594 BC cancelled debt slavery gave citizenship to foreign artisans who promised to settle permanently in Athens "Solon" is n... Free Essays on Democracy in Athens Free Essays on Democracy in Athens DEMOCRACY IN ATHENS The rise of the Athenian city-state took place c. 1000 BC. Athens is located on the mainland in an area known as Attica, across the straits of Messina from Sparta and Corinth. Dorian invaders overran the Ionian natives c. 1000 BC. Unlike the Spartans, the Dorians assimilated the Ionian culture and became peaceful. Athenians turned toward the sea for a living, establishing a strong commercial trade. Athens founded many colonies in the Aegean Sea. Many Athenians became wealthy thus creating a wide social gap between its people. Social classes developed in Athens creating friction among its people. All males whose mother and father were citizens could vote and take part in the government (Citizens). The rising merchant and artisan class (Metics) could not own land or take part in the government. About 1/2 of population were slaves - considered personal property but did have some safeguards against abuse. The early Athenian government was an aristocracy which controlled all facets of government. The Assembly (Ecclesia); comprised of all male citizens but had very little power initially. King; elected by the aristocrats and owed power to them. Archons 9 aristocrats chosen from the Assembly made all laws and executed them controlled all political facets of Athenian life Judges; aristocrats chosen from Assembly and were given the task of verbal interpretation of the law. A series of democratic reformers moved Athens from and aristocracy to a democracy over a period of 150 years. Draco (621 BC) elected as Archon in 621 BC and went on to write down existing verbal laws laws were harsh and severe but represented a significant step in democracy harsh laws are often called "Draconian". Solon (594 BC) appointed to deal with Athenian problems in 594 BC cancelled debt slavery gave citizenship to foreign artisans who promised to settle permanently in Athens "Solon" is n...